TYPES OF SAYING

PHRASEOLOGY: En lingüística, la fraseología es el estudio de expresiones fijas, como los Idiotismos (Idioms), verbos preposicionales, y otro tipo de unidades léxicas multiverbales (conocidas también como frasemas) o frase hecha, en las que el significado que se obtiene de la combinación de las palabras no es necesariamente el esperado de analizar por separado sus componentes. Un ejemplo puede ser, en el español de México, darle el avión a alguien, que significa no prestar atención a alguien, y no implica de ninguna manera la entrega de este vehículo.

PHRASING: The choice of words used to express something: The phrasing of the contract is ambiguous.

Formulaic language

Formulaic language (previously known as automatic speech or embolalia) is a linguistic term for verbal expressions that are fixed in form, often non-literal in meaning with attitudinal nuances, and closely related to communicative-pragmatic context.^[1] Along with idioms, expletives and proverbs, formulaic language includes pause fillers (e.g., “Like,” “Er” or “Uhm”) and conversational speech formulas (e.g., “You’ve got to be kidding,” “Excuse me?” or “Hang on a minute”).

EMBOLALIA
The word embolalia comes from the Greek word embolos which means 'something thrown in', from the word emballo- meaning 'to throw in',^[2] and -lalia meaning 'speech, chattering and babbling; abnormal or disordered form of speech
Modern linguists led by Leonard Bloomfield in 1933 call these "hesitation forms", the sounds of stammering (uh), stuttering (um, um), throat-clearing (ahem!), stalling (well, um, that is), interjected when the speaker is groping for words or at a loss for the next thought.^[4]
French psychiatrist Jules Séglas, on the other hand, referred to the term embolalia, as "the regular addition of prefixes or suffixes to words" and mentioned that the behavior is sometimes used by normal individuals to demonstrate to their interlocutor that they are paying attention to the conversation.^[5]

Characteristics of formulaic language

Linguistic features

Definition of formulaic sequences[edit]

According to “The Canadian Modern Language Review,” formulaic sequences are “fixed combinations of words that ... can facilitate fluency in speech by making pauses shorter and less frequent, and allowing longer runs of speech between pauses.”^[9]
A formulaic sequence is “a sequence, continuous or discontinuous, of words or other elements, which is, or appears to be, prefabricated: that is, stored and retrieved whole from memory at the time of use, rather than being subject to generation or analysis by the language grammar.”^[10]
They can be found everywhere in language use and “make up a large proportion of any discourse.”^[11] Formulaic sequences can be of any length and can be used to express messages, functions, social solidarity and process information very fast without communication misunderstanding.^[12]

SAYING VS PROVERB

Saying is a synonym of proverb. As verbs the difference between saying and proverb is that saying is (say) while proverb is to write or utter proverbs. As nouns the difference between saying and proverb is that saying is a proverb or maxim; something often said while proverb is a phrase expressing a basic truth which may be applied to common situations.

Unidades fraseológicas

Las unidades básicas de análisis en fraseología son comúnmente conocidas como frasemas o unidades fraseológicas. Las unidades fraseológicas son grupos de palabras estables con significados trasladados parcial o totalmente ("estirar la pata",“obsequio griego”, “beber hasta morir”, “tomar como cosaco”, “loco como una cabra”). De acuerdo con Rosemarie Gläser, una unidad fraseológica es un grupo bilexema o polilexema de palabras en uso común lexicalizado, el cual tiene estabilidad sintáctica y semantica relativas, puede ser idiomatizada, puede implicar connotaciones, y quizá tenga un función empática o fortalecedora en un texto.

What are ... Proverbs, Sayings, Aphorisms, Idioms, Puns, etc.

Here is a list of definitions (with examples), which helps to understand the differencebetween these terms.

It is common to find different words existing in English to represent similar ideas. It is an frequent characteristic of a language with a long history. There are a number of specific types of saying, of which proverb is probably the best known. However, the distinction between them is often pretty vague.

Adage

An aphorism that has that has gained credit through long use.

Example: Where there's smoke, there's fire.

Aphorism

A tersely, memorable phrased statement of a truth or opinion; an adage.

[from Greek aphorismos, from aphorizein, to delimit, define. Apo- (1. Away from; off; Separate. 2. Without 3. Related to) + Horizein (limit, boundary)]

Example: He's a fool who cannot conceal his wisdom.

Cliché

An overly commonplace, banal or trite saying, expression or idea. Sometimes the terms stereotype orplatitude are used as a synonym.
Clichés can be defined as preconceived twists, hackneyed and worn out by too frequent use of images, modes of expression, speech and thought patterns. These are often used thoughtlessly and without individual conviction.

Example: All Americans are very open.

Epigram

A concise, clever, often paradoxical statement, thought or observation; sometimes expressed as a short, witty poem.

Example: The only way to get rid of temptation is to yield to it.

Epithet

A descriptive term (= word or phrase) used to characterize a person or thing, that has become popular is commonly understood.

Example: The Great Emancipator — as a term for Abraham Lincoln.

Folklore

The term in the narrower sense means oral lore of a group of people. In the broader sense folklore describes the totality of " demotic " traditions. It often has religious or mythical elements.
See also: myth, (urban) legend, tale, oral tradition.

[From Old English - folk = "people" and lore = "tradition" or "knowledge"]
Therefore folklore literally means "knowledge of the people" or "tradition of the people".

Gnome

A pithy saying that expresses a general truth, fundamental principle or an instruction in a compact form (usually taken from ancient literature or poems); an aphorism.

[Greek: from gignoskein, to know]

Example: Moderation is the best thing (by Cleobulus of Lindos; circa 600 BC)

Idiom

An expression that is peculiar to itself grammatically or cannot be understood from the individual meanings of the words. Quite a few idioms are language specific, and thus diificult to translate.

Example: A cold day in Hell

Hyperbole

A figure of speech (or any rhetorical device) in which exaggeration is used for emphasis or effect, mostly beyond credibility.

[Greek huperbol, exaggeration, from: huper (= beyond) and ballein (= to throw)]

It is encountered in casual speech, as in — “I could sleep for a year” — “This book weighs a ton.”

Mantra

Originated in the Vedic tradition of India; a mantra is now a religious or mystical sound, syllable or poetic phrase used in prayers and during meditation.

Example: Haro Hara [huh'-roh huh'-ruh] — bestows knowledge of intuitive truth.

Maxim

Compared with its approximate synonyms: saying, adage, saw, motto, epigram, proverb, aphorism, the term maxim stresses the succinct formulation of a fundamental principle, general truth, or rule of conduct.

[Latin: maximus, "greatest", via the expression maxima propositio, "greatest premise".]

Example: Neither a borrower nor a lender be.

Motto

A brief statement used to express a principle, a motivation, a goal, or an ideal.

Examples: Be Prepared (Girlguiding UK); Fidelity, Bravery, Integrity (FBI).

Phrasal verb

An English verb and one or more following particles (e.g. a preposition or adverb); the combination creates a meaning different from the original verb thus acting as a complete syntactic and semantic unit.

Example: The new teacher passes for a linguist.

Proverb

A simple and short saying, widely known, often metaphorical, which expresses a basic truth or practical precept, based on common sense or cultural experience.

Example: Honesty is the best policy.

Pun

This is a form of word play that exploits multiple meanings of words (or of similar-sounding words) for an intended humorous or rhetorical effect.

Example: A fool with a tool is still a fool.

Quip

A clever or witty observation or remark, with a tendency to descend into sarcasm, or otherwise is short of point.

[Latin: quippe = "indeed" - meaning: smart remark]

Example: Better a witty fool than a foolish wit.

Quotation

This is a repetition — literally taken over from another text or speech and explicitly attributed by a citation. Quotes, whose original context is lost and can no longer be reconstructed, are named fragments.

Example: "Give me six hours to chop down a tree and I will spend the first four sharpening the axe." (Abraham Lincoln)

Saying

A short well-known expression — a pithy remark of wisdom and truth or a general advice.

Example: The road to hell is paved with good intentions.

Saw

An old familiar saying that is commonplace, longstanding and occasionally trite (sometimes through repetition).

[Old English: synonym for "saying" - meaning: uneducated wisdom, often based in supersititions]

Example: When in Rome, do as the Romans do.

Slogan

This is a memorable motto or phrase used as a repetitive expression of an idea or purpose. Also calledtagline or one liner.

Example: Make learning fun.

Winged Word

A popular saying which can be attributed (as a citation) to a specific source. These phrases have found entrance into general usage. Among them are often terse descriptions of complex matters or those of life experiences.

Example: Writing on the wall (Biblical book of Daniel)

Witticism

Witty remarks can be intentionally cruel and are more ingenious than funny.

Lady Astor said to Churchill, "If you were my husband, I'd poison your tea," Churchill replied "Madam, if you were my wife, I'd drink it!"

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Axiom

An axiom (or postulate) is a principle of a theory, scientific model, or an axiomatic system that is and cannot be justified from within the system or derived by deduction.

Example: Law of the Excluded Middle [also: principle of the excluded third - this is the third of the three classic laws of thought; it states, that any statemet or proposition is either true or wrong]

In everyday language, the term Axiom is used to describe a fundamental simple truth; like a circle is round.

Dogma

A Dogma is a principle or set of principles, which serve as a definition or as a basic (normative) doctrine. Its inherent truth claim cannot be refuted, without affecting the very system's central paradigms and the (belief) systems stability. The content of a dogma has at least no proven or recognizable counterpart in reality. It is also often laid down by an authority as an incontrovertibly truth.

Paradox

A paradox is a statement that seemingly or actually contains an irresolvable contradiction. Thus it contradicts itself and yet might be true.

Example: All Cretans are liars. [from Epimenides (a Cretan) who made this immortal statement]

Nota bene: Self-referentiality or self-reference, is a term that describes how a symbol, an idea or statement (or a model, image, or story) refers to itself.

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A saying is something that is said, notable in one respect or another, to be “a pithy expression of wisdom or truth”.

There are a number of specific types of saying:

Adage – An aphorism that has gained credibility by virtue of long use.

Aphorism – A concise definition, notably memorable.

Apophthegm – “…an edgy, more cynical aphorism; such as, ‘Men are generally more careful of the breed of their horses and dogs than of their children.’”

Bromide – A phrase or platitude that, having been employed excessively, suggests insincerity or a lack of originality in the speaker employing it.

Cliché – An overly commonplace, hackneyed or trite saying.

Epigram – A poetic form of comment on a particular idea, occurrence, or person.

Epithet – A descriptive word or phrase that has become a popular formulation.

Gnome – (Greek: gnome, from gignoskein, to know) A type of saying, especially an aphorism or a maxim, that is designed to provide instruction in a compact form. 2. A brief reflection or maxim; a pithy saying. (syn: adage, apothegm, maxim, proverb, sententia ...)

Idiom – “…an expression whose meaning can’t be derived simply by hearing it, such as ‘Kick the bucket.’”

Mantra – A religious or mystical syllable or poetic phrase.

Maxim – A principle or rule. A maxim is a wise saying, especially one intended to advise or recommend a course of conduct. 2. A self-evident axiom or premise; a pithy expression of a general principle or rule. A precept; a succinct statement or observation of a rule of conduct or moral teaching. In comparison to its approximate synonyms: saying, adage, saw, motto, epigram, proverb, aphorism, the term maxim stresses the succinct formulation of an ultimate truth, a fundamental principle, or a rule of conduct. The word derives from the Latin word maximus, “greatest”, via an expression maxima propositio, “greatest premise”.

Motto – A concise expression of motivation used by a group or individual. 2.a short sentence or phrase that expresses a belief or purpose: Her motto is "Work hard, play hard".

Platitude – A flat, insipid, trite, or weak remark.

Proverb – An expression of practical truth or wisdom. A phrase expressing a basic truth which may be applied to common situations. As a verb, proverb is to write or utter proverbs.

Quip – A witty or funny observation.

Saw – A saying that is commonplace, longstanding and occasionally trite.

Witticism – A smart saying, notable for its form or style rather than its content.

COIN: (VERB)to invent a new word or expression, or to use one in a particular way for the first time: Allen Ginsberg coined the term "flower power".

Coin a phrase: Fig. to create a new expression that is worthy of being remembered and repeated. (Often jocular.) He is "worth his weight in feathers," to coin a phrase.

COLLOCATION: also collocate, 1. a word or phrase that is often used with another word or phrase, in a way that sounds correct to people who have spoken the language all their lives, but might not be expected from the meaning: In the phrase "a hard frost", "hard" is a collocation of "frost" and "strong" would not sound natural. 2.The combination of words formed when two or more words are often used together in a way that sounds correct: The phrase "a hard frost" is a collocation. 3. the regular use of some words and phrases with others, especially in a way that is difficult to guess.
GRAMMAR: CollocationCollocation refers to how words go together or form fixed relationships. …     

DICTA/DICTUMS (DICTUM): a short statement, especially one expressing advice or a general truth: He followed the famous American dictum "Don't get mad, get even".

EPIGRAMS: a short saying or poem that expresses an idea in a clever, funny way: One of Oscar Wilde's most frequently quoted epigrams is "I can resist everything except temptation".

EXPRESSIONS: a word or group of words used in a particular situation or by particular people: He uses a lot of unusual expressions."A can of worms" is an expression that means "a difficult situation".

EUPHEMISMS: A euphemism /ˈjufəˌmɪzəm/ is a generally innocuous word or expression used in place of one that may be found offensive or suggest something unpleasant.^[1] Some euphemisms are intended to amuse; while others use bland, inoffensive terms for things the user wishes to downplay. Euphemisms are used to refer to taboo topics (such as disability, sex, excretion, and death) in a polite way, or to mask profanity.^[2]
There are three antonyms of euphemism: dysphemism, cacophemism, and loaded language. Dysphemism can be either offensive or merely ironic; cacophemism is deliberately offensive. Loaded language evokes a visceral response beyond the meaning of the words.

FIGURE OF SPEECH (FIGURA RETORICA): an expression that uses words to mean something different from their ordinary meaning: "Break a leg" is a figure of speech, meaning "good luck". 2. A form of expression in language, either spoken or written, that employs nonliteral meaning, unusual construction, or a particular combination of sounds to emphasize or heighten the rhetorical effect. Bob: "Does eating an apple a day really keep doctors away from you?" Doug: "Don't take it so literally, Bob, it's just a figure of speech. 3.A figure of speech is the use of a word or words diverging from its usual meaning. It can also be a special repetition, arrangement or omission of words with literal meaning, or a phrase with a specialized meaning not based on the literal meaning of the words in it, as in idiom, metaphor, simile, hyperbole, or personification. Figures of speech often provide emphasis, freshness of expression, or clarity. However, clarity may also suffer from their use, as any figure of speech introduces an ambiguity between literal and figurative interpretation. A figure of speech is sometimes called a rhetorical figure or a locution.

HEADERS: a piece of text, such as a page number or a title, that appears at the top of every page in a document or book

HEADLINES: (titular) 1.The title of a newspaper story that is printed in large letters above it: a front-page headline. THE HEADLINES (los titulares): the main stories in newspapers, on television, etc. That story was in the headlines all over the world.

HEDGES (just):1. a word or phrase that makes what you say less strong  We use hedges to soften what we say or write. Hedges are an important part of polite conversation. They make what we say less direct. The most common forms of hedging involve tense and aspect, modal expressions including modal verbs and adverbs, vague language such as sort of and kind of, and some verbs.

JAWBREAKER (tongue-twister): a word that is difficult to pronounce

LOCUTION: A particular word, phrase, or expression, especially one that is used by a particular person or group. 2. a word or phrase that particular people use in particular situations; "pardon the expression" (syn: saying, expression)


MANTRAS: a word or phrase that is often repeated and expresses a particular strong belief: The British fans chanted that familiar football mantra: "Here we go, here we go, here we go..."

MISSION STATEMENTS: (Statement of purpose): A mission statement is a statement which is used as a way of communicating the purpose of the organization. The best mission statements are clear, memorable, and concise. Examples:
TED: Spreading Ideas. (2 words); Livestrong: To inspire and empower people affected by cancer. (8); Invisible Children: To bring a permanent end to LRA atrocities. (8)

QUIPS: As nouns the difference between quip and gnome is that quip is a smart, sarcastic turn or jest; a taunt; a severe retort or comeback; a gibe while gnome is a brief reflection or maxim; a pithy saying or gnome can be (magic|alchemy|rosicrucianism) an elemental (spirit or corporeal creature associated with a classical element) associated with earth. As a verb quip is to make a quip.

SET EXPRESSIONS / PHRASE: a phrase in which the words are always used in the same order.

SLOGANS: a short easily remembered phrase, especially one used to advertise an idea or a product.
Examples: an advertising slogan, a campaign slogan. 

SOUNDBITES: a short sentence or phrase that is easy to remember, often included in a speech made by a politician and repeated in newspapers and on television and radio: Most politicians want to master the art of the soundbite

How To Speak In Sound Bites
What was it like to deal with the financial crisis that brought the financial system of the United States to the brink of disaster?
“It’s like you’re in the cockpit of the plane — your engine’s burning, smoke’s filling the cabin, it’s filled with a bunch of people that are fighting with each other about who’s responsible, you have terrorists on the plane and people want you to come out of the cockpit and put them in jail. And you have to land the plane. That terrifying core objective in a crisis is to make sure you first put out the fire.” And Transforming...

Here are three elements that good sound bites possess
Analogy. The best sound bites use analogies making a comparison between unlike situations. Geithner likened financial crisis as the equivalent of piloting a plane on fire. It is a powerful simile. Metaphors are also powerful.
Brevity. Never over do the analogy. Doing so undermines its power because listeners will see through the imagery for what it is. In this regard a sound bite phrase is useful. As James Lowther of Britain’s House of Parliament advised new members: “Stand up. Speak up. Shut up”
Polish. You don’t get good at playing the piano without practicing. Every day. Those who use sound bites well spend time creating them but also employing them in their regularly in their communications. Practice does make perfect.
Proficient users of sound bites are attuned to their usage. This comes from being well read. Keep up with the issues but also read for pleasure. Picking up a book of poetry never hurt. Also look at quotations from great speakers. It’s a fine way to look how masters of speech honed their commentary into statements that have become seared into our consciousness. For example:

SOUNDBITES EXAMPLES:
John Kennedy’s Inaugural Speech: “Ask not what your country can do for you but rather what you can do for your country.”
Sound bites need not be solemn. For example:
Ronald Reagan citing a Russian proverb: “Trust but verify.”
Harry Truman being direct: “Do what you think is right and let them all to go hell.”

WAR CRY: a phrase or word shouted by people as they start to fight, intended to give them the strength and wish to fight harder: figurative The phrase "burn your bra!" was the feminists' war cry of the 1970s.

• Irony – creating a trope through implying the opposite of the standard meaning, such as describing a bad situation as "good times".

the use of words to convey a meaning that is the opposite of its literal meaning:

the irony of her reply, “How nice!” when I said I had to work all weekend.

• Metaphor – an explanation of an object or idea through juxtaposition of disparate things with a similar characteristic, such as describing a courageous person as having a "heart of a lion".

Discourse marker    

A discourse marker is a word or phrase that is relatively syntax-independent and does not change the truth conditional meaning of the sentence, and has a somewhat empty meaning.^[1] Examples of discourse markers include the particles "oh", "well", "now", "then", "you know", and "I mean", and the 'discourse connectives', "so", "because", "and", "but", and "or".^[2]
In Practical English Usage, Michael Swan defines a 'discourse marker' as 'a word or expression which shows the connection between what is being said and the wider context'. For him, a discourse marker is something that either connects a sentence to what comes before or after, or indicates a speaker's attitude to what he is saying. He gives three examples: on the other hand; frankly; as a matter of fact.^[3]
Traditionally, some of the words or phrases that were considered discourse markers were treated as "fillers" or "expletives": words or phrases that had no function at all. Now they are assigned functions in different levels of analysis: topic changes, reformulations, discourse planning, stressing, hedging, or backchanneling. Those functions can be classified into three broad groups: (a) relationships among (parts of) utterances; (b) relationships between the speaker and the message, and (c) relationships between speaker and hearer. An example of the latter is the Yiddish involvement discourse marker nu, also used in Modern Hebrew and other languages, often to convey impatience or to urge the hearer to act (cf. German cognate nun, meaning "now" in the sense of "at the moment being discussed," but contrast Latin etymological cognate nunc, meaning "now" in the sense of "at the moment in which discussion is occurring"; Latin used iam for "at the moment being discussed," and German uses jetzt for "at the moment in which discussion is occurring").^[4]
Data shows that discourse markers often come from different word classes, such as adverbs ("well") or prepositional phrases ("in fact"). The process that leads from a free construction to a discourse marker can be traced back through grammaticalisation studies and resources.^{[citation needed]}
Common discourse markers used in the English language include "you know", "actually", "basically", "like", "I mean", "okay" and "so".

 FILLERS
 In linguistics, a filler is a sound or word that is spoken in conversation by one participant to signal to others a pause to think without giving the impression of having finished speaking.^[1] These are not to be confused with placeholder names, such as thingamajig, whatsamacallit, whosawhatsa and whats'isface, which refer to objects or people whose names are temporarily forgotten, irrelevant, or unknown. Different languages have different characteristic filler sounds; in English, the most common filler sounds are uh /ʌ/, er /ɜː/, and um /ʌm/.^[2] Among youths, the fillers "like",^[3] "y'know", "I mean", "so", "actually", "basically", and "right" are among the more prevalent. Ronald Reagan was famous for beginning his answers to questions with "Well..."^{[citation needed]}, and President Barack Obama is known often beginning statements with "Look...".^{[citation needed]} Fillers fall into the category of formulaic language
Headers and tails

from English Grammar Today

Headers and tails are common in speaking, but very uncommon in writing. We use headers when we place information at the front of what we say. This can help our listeners to understand more easily what we are referring to. Headers can consist of a noun phrase or noun phrases or whole clauses. The header is followed by a pronoun (underlined in the examples) which refers back to the header:

Anna, David’s sister, she’s going to New York for her birthday.

That big house, is it where the doctor lives?

Going to football matches, that’s what my cousin Jim likes best.

Tails occur at the end of what we say. They are commonly noun phrases. Tails refer back to a pronoun (underlined in the examples), and commonly give more information about it. Like headers, they help a listener to understand more easily what we are referring to:

They’re not cheap to buy, cars in Singapore.

She’s a really good marathon runner, Alice.

 

Cleft sentences (It was in June we got married.)           

from English Grammar Today

We use cleft sentences, especially in speaking, to connect what is already understood to what is new to the listener. In a cleft sentence, a single message is divided (cleft) into two clauses. This allows us to focus on the new information.

It-cleft sentences

It-clauses are the most common type of cleft clause. The information that comes after it is emphasised for the listener. The clause which follows the it-clause is connected using that and it contains information that is already understood. We often omit that in informal situations when it is the object of the verb:

A: Sharon’s car got broken into yesterday, did it?

B: No. It was Nina’s car that got broken into!

Focus (new information): it was Nina’s car

Understood already (old information): a car got broken into

A: You’ve met my mother, haven’t you?

B: No, it was your sister (that) I met!

Focus (new information): it was your sister

Understood already (old information): I met someone in your family

Is it August that you are going on holiday?

Focus (new information): the month August?

Understood already (old information): you are going on holiday

When a personal subject is the focus, we can use who instead of that. We often omit who in informal situations when it is the object of the verb:

It was my husband who (or that) you spoke to on the phone. (or It was my husband you spoke to on the phone.)

When a plural subject is the focus, we use a plural verb but It + be remains singular:

It’s the parents who were protesting most.

We can use negative structures in the it-clause:

It wasn’t the Greek student who phoned.

Wh-cleft sentences (What I need is a holiday)

Wh-cleft sentences are most often introduced by what, but we can also use why, where, how, etc. The information in the wh-clause is typically old or understood information, while the information in the following clause is new and in focus:

A: I don’t know what to cook for them? I don’t know what they like.

B: What they like is smoked salmon.

Understood already (old information): we are talking about what they like to eat

Focus (new information): they like smoked salmon

A: This remote control isn’t working.

B: What we need to do is get new batteries for it.

Understood already (old information): there is something that we need to do to fix the remote control.

Focus (new information): we need to buy new batteries